liminfoEthicsref
Free reference guide: Ethicsref
About Ethicsref
The Ethics Reference is a structured guide covering six major branches of ethical theory — Virtue Ethics, Deontology, Utilitarianism, Social Contract, Ethics of Care, and Applied Ethics. Each entry includes the core philosophical concept, key thinkers, and concrete examples illustrating how the theory applies to real-world moral reasoning.
The reference spans from Aristotle's concept of eudaimonia and the Golden Mean (Mesotes) through Kant's three formulations of the categorical imperative, Bentham's felicific calculus, Mill's distinction between higher and lower pleasures, Hobbes' Leviathan, Locke's natural rights, Rousseau's general will, and Rawls' veil of ignorance and difference principle.
Applied ethics entries address contemporary moral issues including Beauchamp and Childress's four principles of biomedical ethics, the euthanasia debate, environmental ethics (anthropocentrism vs. ecocentrism), AI ethics (algorithmic bias, trolley problem for autonomous vehicles), business ethics (stakeholder vs. shareholder theory, ESG), and information ethics (privacy, digital divide). All content is searchable and filterable by category.
Key Features
- Aristotle's virtue ethics with eudaimonia, Golden Mean (Mesotes), and MacIntyre's narrative unity concept
- Kant's three formulations of the categorical imperative and Ross's seven prima facie duties
- Bentham's felicific calculus (7 criteria) and Mill's higher vs. lower pleasures distinction
- Four social contract theories: Hobbes (Leviathan), Locke (natural rights), Rousseau (general will), Rawls (veil of ignorance)
- Gilligan's three stages of moral development and Noddings' four elements of educational care
- Beauchamp & Childress biomedical ethics: autonomy, non-maleficence, beneficence, and justice
- Contemporary AI ethics coverage including algorithmic bias, autonomous vehicle dilemmas, and accountability
- Business ethics comparing stakeholder theory, shareholder theory, CSR, and ESG frameworks
Frequently Asked Questions
What ethical theories does this reference cover?
The reference covers six branches: Virtue Ethics (Aristotle, MacIntyre), Deontology (Kant's categorical imperative, Ross's prima facie duties), Utilitarianism (Bentham's quantitative, Mill's qualitative, Singer's preference utilitarianism), Social Contract (Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, Rawls), Ethics of Care (Gilligan, Noddings), and Applied Ethics (biomedical, environmental, AI, business, information ethics).
How does the reference explain Kant's categorical imperative?
Three formulations are detailed: (1) the universalizability principle — act only according to maxims you could will as universal laws; (2) the humanity formula — treat people never merely as means but always as ends; (3) the autonomy formula — act as an autonomous legislator of moral law. The reference also contrasts categorical imperatives with hypothetical imperatives and examines duty conflicts.
What is the difference between Bentham's and Mill's utilitarianism?
Bentham's quantitative utilitarianism treats all pleasures as equally measurable through his felicific calculus (evaluating intensity, duration, certainty, propinquity, fecundity, purity, and extent). Mill's qualitative utilitarianism introduces a hierarchy where intellectual (higher) pleasures outweigh sensory (lower) pleasures, famously stating it is better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied.
How does Rawls's theory of justice work?
Rawls proposes the "veil of ignorance" thought experiment where rational agents choose principles of justice without knowing their own social position, talents, or circumstances. From this original position, Rawls argues two principles emerge: (1) equal basic liberties for all, and (2) the difference principle — social and economic inequalities are only justified if they benefit the least advantaged members of society.
What are the four principles of biomedical ethics?
Beauchamp and Childress established four principles: respect for autonomy (patient's right to self-determination), non-maleficence (do no harm), beneficence (actively pursue the patient's welfare), and justice (fair distribution of healthcare resources). These principles provide a framework for resolving ethical dilemmas in clinical medicine and healthcare policy.
How does the reference address AI ethics?
The AI ethics entry covers algorithmic bias and fairness concerns, the autonomous vehicle trolley problem (how self-driving cars should handle unavoidable accident scenarios), privacy and surveillance issues, job displacement and social justice implications, and the question of accountability — whether responsibility lies with the developer, the AI system, or the deploying organization.
What is the difference between Gilligan's and Noddings' care ethics?
Gilligan developed care ethics as a critique of Kohlberg's justice-centered moral development, proposing three stages: self-interest, self-sacrifice, and mature care that balances self and others. Noddings focuses specifically on educational care relationships between the "one-caring" and "cared-for," built on four elements: modeling, dialogue, practice, and confirmation.
How does the trolley problem illustrate ethical theory differences?
The trolley problem — whether to sacrifice one person to save five — reveals fundamental disagreements between ethical frameworks. Utilitarianism supports switching the track (maximizing lives saved), deontology prohibits using a person merely as a means (pushing someone onto the tracks), and the doctrine of double effect distinguishes between intended consequences and merely foreseen side effects.