Philotime

The timeline covers 25 philosophers across 6 eras. Ancient: Socrates (469-399 BC), Plato (428-348 BC), Aristotle (384-322 BC), Epicurus (341-270 BC), Stoics (from 300 BC). Medieval: Augustine (354-430), Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), William of Ockham (1287-1347). Modern: Descartes (1596-1650), Spinoza (1632-1677), Kant (1724-1804), Hegel (1770-1831), Marx (1818-1883). Contemporary: Nietzsche (1844-1900), Heidegger (1889-1976), Sartre (1905-1980), Camus (1913-1960). Eastern: Confucius (551-479 BC), Laozi (6th century BC), Zhuangzi (369-286 BC), Buddha (563-483 BC). Analytic: Wittgenstein (1889-1951), Russell (1872-1970), Quine (1908-2000), Rawls (1921-2002).

Plato argued that the physical world is merely a shadow of a higher realm of perfect, unchanging Forms (Ideas). His Allegory of the Cave illustrates prisoners seeing only shadows and mistaking them for reality. Aristotle, Plato's student, rejected the separate realm of Forms and instead argued that form and matter are inseparable within individual substances. Aristotle's approach is empirical — knowledge comes from observing particular things — while Plato's is rationalist, seeking truth beyond sensory experience. Aristotle developed formal logic (the syllogism) as a tool for systematic reasoning.

Cogito ergo sum ("I think, therefore I am") is Descartes' foundational philosophical proposition from his method of radical doubt. He systematically doubted everything — senses, mathematics, the external world — but found that the very act of doubting proved the existence of a thinking subject. This became the indubitable foundation upon which he rebuilt knowledge. It established mind-body dualism (the separation of mental substance and physical substance) and marked the beginning of modern rationalist philosophy, shifting the basis of knowledge from divine authority to individual consciousness.

Kant's categorical imperative is the supreme principle of morality, expressed as: "Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law." In practical terms, before acting, ask: "What if everyone did this?" If universalizing the action leads to a contradiction (e.g., universal lying would destroy trust and make lying itself impossible), the action is morally impermissible. Kant also formulated it as treating humanity never merely as a means but always also as an end. This deontological ethics judges actions by their principles, not their consequences.

Existentialism holds that existence precedes essence — humans are not born with a predetermined nature but must create meaning through free choices and actions. Sartre argued that humans are "condemned to be free" and bear total responsibility for their choices, with no God or human nature to provide excuses. Camus, while often grouped with existentialists, focused specifically on the absurd — the conflict between human desire for meaning and the universe's indifference. While Sartre emphasized radical freedom and commitment (engagement), Camus advocated revolt against absurdity while embracing life, as illustrated in his statement: "We must imagine Sisyphus happy."

Four Eastern philosophers are covered. Confucius (551-479 BC) taught ren (benevolence/humaneness) and li (ritual propriety) as the foundation of social harmony, with each person fulfilling their role faithfully. Laozi (6th century BC) authored the Tao Te Ching and advocated wu wei (non-action/effortless action), following the natural way (Tao). Zhuangzi (369-286 BC) extended Taoist thought with his butterfly dream paradox (questioning the boundary between dream and reality) and the concept of absolute freedom (xiaoyao you). Buddha (563-483 BC) taught the Four Noble Truths (suffering, its origin, its cessation, the path) and the Middle Way between extremes.

John Rawls' veil of ignorance is a thought experiment from his 1971 work "A Theory of Justice." It asks: what principles of justice would rational people choose if they did not know their place in society — their race, gender, wealth, talents, or intelligence? Behind this "veil of ignorance" in the "original position," Rawls argued people would choose two principles: (1) equal basic liberties for all, and (2) the difference principle — social and economic inequalities are permissible only if they benefit the least advantaged members of society. This provides a philosophical foundation for distributive justice and welfare policies.

Wittgenstein's philosophy evolved dramatically between two periods. In his early Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, he argued that language pictures facts and that "whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent." In his later Philosophical Investigations, he reversed course, arguing that meaning is not determined by correspondence to reality but by use within specific contexts or "language games." Words gain meaning through how they are used in practice, much like tools in a toolbox. He introduced the concept of "family resemblance" — categories (like "games") need not share one essential feature but overlap in a network of similarities. This shift profoundly influenced analytic philosophy, ordinary language philosophy, and the philosophy of mind.